AMERICA CONTINENT

e Americas, or America,[1][2] (Spanish: América, Portuguese: América, French: Amérique, Quechua: Amirika, Guaraní: Amérika, Aymara: Amërika, Dutch: Amerika)[3] are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions while the singular form America is primarily used to refer to the United States of America.[2][4][5] The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land area) and contain about 13.5% of the human population (about 900 million people).Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Settlement
1.2 Pre-Columbian era
1.3 European colonization of the Americas
1.4 Etymology and naming
2 Geology
3 Geography
3.1 Extent
3.2 Topography
3.3 Hydrology
4 Demography
4.1 Population
4.2 Largest urban centers
4.3 Ethnology
4.4 Religion
4.5 Languages
5 Terminology
5.1 America/Americas
5.2 American
5.2.1 English usage
5.2.2 Spanish usage
5.2.3 Portuguese usage
5.2.4 French usage
5.2.5 Dutch usage
5.2.6 Russian usage
6 Countries and territories
6.1 Sovereign states
6.2 Overseas regions, dependencies, colonies
7 Multinational organizations in the Americas
8 See also
9 Footnotes
10 References
11 External links

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History

CIA political map of the Americas in an equal-area projection
Main article: History of the Americas
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Settlement
For more details on theories of Paleo-Indian migration, see Models of migration to the New World.

The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.[6] The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago,[7] when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation.[6][8] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets.[9] Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America.[10] Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.[11]

Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indians migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges somewhere between 40,000 and 16,500 years ago.[12][13][14] The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000–13,000 years before present.[14][15]

The Inuit migrated into the Arctic section of North America in another wave of migration, arriving around 1000 CE.[16] Around the same time as the Inuit migrated into North America, Viking settlers began arriving in Greenland in 982 and Vinland shortly thereafter, establishing a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows, near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland.[17] The Viking settlers quickly abandoned Vinland, and disappeared from Greenland by 1500.[18]
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Pre-Columbian era
Main article: Pre-Columbian era

Mississippian site in Arkansas, Parkin Site, circa 1539. Illustration by Herb Roe.

The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the Early Modern period.

Pre-Columbian is used especially often in the context of the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya) and the Andes (Inca, Moche, Muisca, Cañaris).

Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya, had their own written records. However, most Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, and much was destroyed in Christian pyres. Only a few hidden documents remain today, leaving modern historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.[19]

According to both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations at the time of European encounter possessed many impressive accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the most impressive cities in the world, Tenochtitlan, the ancient site of Mexico City, with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics.[20]
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European colonization of the Americas
Main article: European colonization of the Americas

Large-scale European colonization of the Americas began shortly after the voyages of Christopher Columbus starting in 1492. The first Spanish settlement on the continent was Panama City on the Pacific coast of Central America founded on August 5, 1519. Panama City was the base for the Spanish conquering of South America. The spread of new diseases brought by Europeans and Africans killed many of the inhabitants of North America and South America,[21][22] with a general population crash of Native Americans occurring in the mid-16th century, often well ahead of European contact.[23] Native peoples and European colonizers came into widespread conflict, resulting in what David Stannard has called a genocide of the indigenous populations.[24] Early European immigrants were often part of state-sponsored attempts to found colonies in the Americas. Migration continued as people moved to the Americas fleeing religious persecution or seeking economic opportunities. Millions of individuals were forcibly transported to the Americas as slaves, prisoners or indentured servants.
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Etymology and naming

World map of Waldseemüller, which first named America (in the map over Paraguay), Germany, 1507

The earliest known use of the name America for this landmass dates from April 25, 1507, where it was used for what is now known as South America. It first appears on a small globe map with twelve time zones, together with the largest wall map made to date, both created by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in Saint-Dié-des-Vosges in France. These were the first maps to show the Americas as a land mass separate from Asia. An accompanying book, Cosmographiae Introductio, anonymous but apparently written by Waldseemüller's collaborator Matthias Ringmann,[25] states, "I do not see what right any one would have to object to calling this part [that is, the South American mainland], after Americus who discovered it and who is a man of intelligence, Amerigen, that is, the Land of Americus, or America: since both Europa and Asia got their names from women". Americus Vespucius is the Latinized version of the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci's name, and America is the feminine form of Americus. Amerigen is explained as Amerigo plus gen, the accusative case of the Greek word for 'earth', and meaning 'land of Amerigo'.[25] (See etymology.) Amerigo itself is an Italian form of the medieval Latin Emericus (see also Saint Emeric of Hungary), which through the German form Heinrich (in English, Henry) derived from the Germanic name Haimirich.[26]

Vespucci was apparently unaware of the use of his name to refer to the new landmass, as Waldseemüller's maps did not reach Spain until a few years after his death.[25] Ringmann may have been misled into crediting Vespucci by the widely published Soderini Letter, a sensationalized version of one of Vespucci's actual letters reporting on the mapping of the South American coast, which glamorized his discoveries and implied that he had recognized that South America was a continent separate from Asia; in fact, it is not known what Vespucci believed on this count, and he may have died believing what Columbus had, that they had reached the East Indies in Asia rather than a new continent.[27] Spain officially refused to accept the name America for two centuries, saying that Columbus should get credit, and Waldseemüller's later maps, after he had ceased collaboration with Ringmann, did not include it; however, usage was established when Gerardus Mercator applied the name to the entire New World in his 1538 world map. Acceptance may have been aided by the "natural poetic counterpart" that the name America made with Asia, Africa, and Europa.[25]

Map of America by Jonghe, c. 1770
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Geology

South America broke off from the west of the supercontinent Gondwanaland around 135 million years ago (Ma), forming its own continent.[28] Starting around 15 Ma, the collision of the Caribbean Plate and the Pacific Plate resulted in the emergence of a series of volcanoes along the border that created a number of islands. The gaps in the archipelago of Central America filled in with material eroded off North America and South America, plus new land created by continued volcanism. By 3 Ma, the continents of North America and South America were linked by the Isthmus of Panama, thereby forming the single landmass of the Americas.[29]
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Geography
Further information: Geography of North America and Geography of South America
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Extent

The northernmost point of the Americas is Kaffeklubben Island, which is the northernmost point of land on Earth.[30] The southernmost point is the islands of Southern Thule, although they are sometimes considered part of Antarctica.[31] The easternmost point is Nordostrundingen. The westernmost point is Attu Island.

The mainland of the Americas is the longest north-to-south landmass on Earth. At its longest, it stretches roughly 14,000 kilometres, (just under 8700 miles) from the Boothia Peninsula in northern Canada to Cape Froward in Chilean Patagonia. The westernmost point of the mainland of the Americas is the end of the Seward Peninsula in Alaska, while Ponta do Seixas in northeastern Brazil forms the mainland's easternmost extremity.[32]
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Topography

Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the Americas, located in Argentina

The western geography of the Americas is dominated by the American cordillera, with the Andes running along the west coast of South America[33] and the Rocky Mountains and other Western Cordillera ranges running along the western side of North America.[34] The 2300 km long (1429 mile long) Appalachian Mountains run along the east coast of North America from Alabama to Newfoundland.[35] North of the Appalachians, the Arctic Cordillera runs along the eastern coast of Canada.[36]

Between its coastal mountain ranges, North America has vast flat areas. The Interior Plains spread over much of the continent with low relief.[37] The Canadian Shield covers almost 5 million km² of North America and is generally quite flat.[38] Similarly, the north-east of South America is covered by the flat Amazon Basin.[39] The Brazilian Highlands on the east coast are fairly smooth but show some variations in landform, while further south the Gran Chaco and Pampas are broad lowlands.[40]
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Hydrology

With coastal mountains and interior plains, the Americas have several large river basins that drain the continents. The largest river basin in South America is that of the Amazon, which has the highest volume flow of any river on Earth.[41] The largest river basin in North America is that of the Mississippi, covering the second largest watershed on the planet.[42] The second largest watershed of South America is that of the Paraná River, which covers about 2.5 million km².[43]
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Demography
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Population
Further information: List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Americas by population
Mexico City, Mexico

New York City, United States

São Paulo, Brazil


The total population of the Americas is about 859,000,000 people and is divided as follows:[citation needed]
North America: 2001 with 495 million and in 2002 with 501 million (includes Central America and the Caribbean)
South America: 2001 with 352 million and in 2002 with 357 million
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Largest urban centers
See also: Largest cities in the Americas and List of metropolitan areas in the Americas by population

The most populous cities in the Americas are Mexico City, capital of Mexico; New York City, located on the east coast of the United States of America; and São Paulo, capital of the Brazilian state of the same name. Which of these urban centers is considered the most populous depends on the criteria used in determining their populations.City Country Metropolitan Area Rank City Proper Rank
Mexico City Mexico 20,450,000[44] 1st 8,841,916[45] 2nd
New York City United States 19,750,000[44] 2nd 8,363,710[46] 3rd
São Paulo Brazil 18,850,000[44] 3rd 11,244,369[47] 1st

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Ethnology

The population of the Americas is made up of the descendants of seven large ethnic groups and their combinations.
The Indigenous peoples of the Americas, being Amerindians, Inuit, and Aleuts.
Those of European ancestry, mainly Spanish, British, Irish, Italian, Portuguese, French, Polish, German, Dutch, and Scandinavians.
Mestizos, those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry.
Those of Black African ancestry, mainly of West African descent.
Mulattoes, people of mixed Black African and European ancestry.
Zambos (Spanish) or Cafusos (Portuguese), those of mixed Black African and Amerindian ancestry.
Asians, that is, those of Eastern, South, and Southeast Asian ancestry.
Those from the Middle East (Middle Easterners).

The majority of the population live in Latin America, named for its predominant cultures whose roots lie in Latin Europe (including the two dominant languages, Spanish and Portuguese, both neolatin), more specifically in the Iberian nations of Portugal and Spain (hence the use of the term Ibero-America as a synonym). Latin America is typically contrasted with Anglo-America (where English, a Germanic language, is prevalent) which comprises Canada (with the exception of francophone Canada rooted in Latin Europe (France): see Québec and Acadia) and the United States. Both are located in North America and present predominantly Anglo-Saxon and Germanic roots.
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Religion

hydrogen bomb

It is generally believed that the design and production of hydrogen bombs is difficult, and beyond the reach of some nuclear weapons states, such as North Korea. This is the "Ignorant Peon" view of North Korea. In “Dr. Strangelove,” Air Force Gen. Buck Turgidson disparages the Soviets as “a bunch of ignorant peons” who are unable to “understand a machine like some of our boys.” There is a tendency to disparage the North Koreans (as well as Pakistanis, Iranians and Indians) as ignorant peons whose weapons skills are consistently derided as “primitive.”

This belief is probably incorrect. North Korea’s first two tests were low yield affairs, widely derided as failures, because it did not replicate the multi-kiloton yield of America’s first nuclear test. It did, however, coincide with the sub-kiloton tests of the fission trigger for a hydrogen bomb. The “ignorant peon’” school tells us that North Korea’s “primitive” atomic bombs are too big to put on missiles. But possibly North Korea’s hydrogen bombs are easily fitted on missiles.

Two-stage fusion weapons are probably within the reach of "even the smallest nuclear power", as Doctro Strangelove would phrase it. There are three elements that are needed to build a hydrogen bomb:
The basic design elements of the hydrogen bomb have been a matter of public record for several decades. This desing confounded Edward Teller for the better part of a decade, and Soviet designers needed several years to cover the same ground, but for the past several decades the basic ideas have been well known.
The ingredients of a hydrogen bomb are largely those of an atomic bomb, along with a few other items - Tritium, special plastics, and so forth - that would come fairly readily to hand in a nuclear weapons state.
Computing power is the element that brings together the design and the materials, to simulate the accuracy with which theory has been reduced to practice. Today's home computers are roughly a million times more powerful than the computers used by the United States to produce the first hydrogen bomb.
In all probability, at least one test of a low yield trigger would be needed just to make sure nothing had been overlooked. Israel seems to have conducted once such test in 1979, as did Pakistan in 1998. India conducted multiple low yield tests in 1989, and North Korea has conducted at least two low yield tests.


History

The ultimate success of the United States thermonuclear program rested on five factors. First, was the discovery of a method to overcome the fundamental problem that thermonuclear systems lose as much energy as they create. Second, Los Alamos had to significantly increase the size of its scientific staff. The hydrogen bomb problem required complex interactions among physicists, chemists, and metallurgists. Third, to start a thermonuclear fire, smaller and more efficient fission bombs were needed. Fourth, computational ability had to be greatly enhanced. Fifth, the political decision had to be made to marshal the resources necessary to accomplish the task.

The idea for a hydrogen bomb came from the thermonuclear study of stars conducted in the 1930s by Hans Bethe. Unlike fission weapons, which derive their energy from splitting atoms of the heavy elements uranium and plutonium, hydrogen bombs derive their power from fusing atoms of the light element hydrogen. Since fusion can only be achieved with stellar temperatures, hydrogen bombs were not possible until such a heat source (fission bombs) became available.

By the end of the 1940s, American scientists began to acknowledge the feasibility of a thermonuclear weapon. Though the technical challenges were daunting, few doubted they could be overcome. However, an even more fundamental question arose: even if hydrogen bombs could be built, should they be? A debate ensued, which included world renowned scientists, politicians, civil servants, and eventually the president himself.

Pressure to build it seemed to mount with the discovery that Manhattan Project scientist Klaus Fuchs had passed nuclear secrets-including concepts for a hydrogen bomb-to the Soviets. Fuchs left Los Alamos on June 15, 1946. By January 1949 suspicion of Fuch's involvement in espionage had grown. Fuchs soon confessed to his part in the theft of atomic secrets.

On March 1, 1950, Fuchs was found guilty of communicating information to the Soviets concerning atomic research. But the theoretical work of 1950 had shown that every important point of the 1946 thermonuclear program had been wrong. If the Russians started a thermonuclear program on the basis of the information received from Fuchs, Bethe argued that it must have led to the same failure. Teller later claimed that radiation-implosion -- the key concept behind the successful hydrogen bomb -- had also been discussed at the Los Alamos meeting. Bethe disagreed, and the question remained unresolved.

Indeed, the Russian account of matters gives Fuchs credit for radiation implosion. "In the spring of 1946, another concept, whose paramount importance became evident afterwards, was suggested during work on the `classical Super.' Klaus Fuchs, with the participation of John von Neumann, proposed a new triggering device. It included an additional secondary unit with liquid D± T mixture that would be heated, compressed, and, as a result, ignited by radiation from the primary nuclear bomb. ... Fuchs's configuration was the first physical scheme using radiation implosion and a precursor of Teller ± Ulam's configuration proposed later. Fuchs's proposal, remarkable for its wealth of novel ideas, was well ahead of its time and could not be developed, given the current state of the mathematical modelling of complex physical processes. ... on May 28, 1946, Fuchs and von Neumann filed a joint patent application for the invention of the new design of the triggering system for the `classical Super' using radiation implosion." None of this is attested by American accounts of these matters.

The "Mike" test of Operation Ivy, 1 November, 1952, was the first explosion of a true two-stage thermonuclear device.

Some were convinced that there was another spy still at large in the US weapons program, and that the most likely candidate was Oppenheimer. But the American atmospheric tests of 1954 provided the scientific information necessary for the Soviets to deduce and confirm key features about its design, leading them to develop their own bomb in a short time.

Information about the new powerful explosion conducted by the USA team on March 1, 1954, renewed the drive of Soviet researchers to invent an efficient design of a high-yield thermonuclear bomb. It became clear to the Soviets that there was an efficient design technique, which had been invented by the American team. The only configuration left was a two-stage gadget. A new mechanism for compression of the secondary thermonuclear core by radiation from the primary nuclear charge had been discovered finally. This happened in March and April 1954.
Design Details

The main unknowns to the public are the design of the casing, and the shape and size of the secondary, relative to the primary. Whether the hot plastic does the pushing or transmits its heat to a designated ablator which does the pushing a matter of continuing discussion.

It would seem to be difficult to shape the secondary like a cylinder, and get a compression wave travelling just before fast neutrons from the sparkplug cause fission - although not impossible. Another problem with the cylindrical shape is that compressing from the sides is like squeezing a tube of toothpaste. If the compression is not fast enough, the material will squirt out the ends.

The early secondaries were cylindrical, because the original goal was to make the largest possible multi-megaton explosion with a device whose diameter was more tightly constrained than its length, in order to be dropped from a bomber.

But when the goal became to fit a warhead in the nosecone of the Polaris missile, length and diameter were of comparable dimensions. The Polaris warhead, the W47, which was tested in 1958 and deployed in the 1960s, contained the first spherical secondary, an arrangement which was soon to become the standard design. The advantage of a spherical secondary is higher compression.
Design Physics

The process of combining nuclei (the protons and neutrons inside an atomic nucleus) together with a release of kinetic energy is called fusion. This process powers the Sun, it contributes to the world stockpile of weapons of mass destruction and may one day generate safe, clean electrical power.

This powerful but complex weapon uses the fusion of heavy isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium to release large numbers of neutrons when the fusile (sometimes termed "fusionable") material is compressed by the energy released by a fission device called a primary. Fusion (or ‘‘thermonuclear’ weapons derive a significant amount of their total energy from fusion reactions. The intense temperatures and pressures generated by a fission explosion overcome the strong electrical repulsion that would otherwise keep the positively charged nuclei of the fusion fuel from reacting.

The first thermonuclear devices used liquid fuel, such as deuterium, which required significant developments in cryogenics to keep the fuel below its boiling point of –250°C. Later devices used lithium deuteride fuel, in solid form, which breeds tritium when exposed to neutrons.

It is inconvenient to carry deuterium and tritium as gases in a thermonuclear weapon, and certainly impractical to carry them as liquefied gases, which requires high pressures and cryogenic temperatures. Instead, one can make a “dry” device in which 6Li is combined with deuterium to form the compound 6Li D (lithium-6 deuteride). Neutrons from a fission “primary” device bombard the 6 Li in the compound, liberating tritium, which quickly fuses with the nearby deuterium.

The a particles, being electrically charged and at high temperatures, contribute directly to forming the nuclear fireball. The neutrons can bombard additional 6Li nuclei or cause the remaining uranium and plutonium in the weapon to undergo fission. This two-stage thermonuclear weapon has explosive yields far greater than can be achieved with one point safe designs of pure fission weapons, and thermonuclear fusion stages can be ignited in sequence to deliver any desired yield. Such bombs, in theory, can be designed with arbitrarily large yields: the Soviet Union once tested a device with a yield of about 59 megatons.

In a relatively crude sense, 6 Li can be thought of as consisting of an alpha particle ( 4He) and a deuteron ( 2H) bound together. When bombarded by neutrons, 6 Li disintegrates into a triton ( 3 H) and an alpha:

6 Li + Neutron = 3 H + 3 He + Energy.

This is the key to its importance in nuclear weapons physics. The nuclear fusion reaction which ignites most readily is

2 H + 3 H =
4 He + n + 17.6 MeV,

or, phrased in other terms, deuterium plus tritium produces 4He plus a neutron plus 17.6 MeV of free energy:

D + T = 4 He + n + 17.6 MeV.

Lithium-7 also contributes to the production of tritium in a thermonuclear secondary, albeit at a lower rate than 6Li. The fusion reactions derived from tritium produced from 7 Li contributed many unexpected neutrons (and hence far more energy release than planned) to the final stag

Engeneering projects

history of king of King BirendraBikramShahDev

Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (वीरेन्द्र वीर विक्रम शाह) (28 December 1945 – 1 June 2001) was a king of Nepal. The son of Mahendra, whom he succeeded in 1972, he reigned until his death in the 2001 Nepal Royal massacre.He is the most internationally well-known Nepalese king in modern history.
Contents[hode)
1 Early life
2 Reign
3 Death
4 References
Early life
Birendra was born at the Narayanhity Royal Palace in Kathmandu as the eldest son of the then Crown Prince Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev and his wife Crown Princess Indra Rajya Laxmi
Birendra was the first Nepalese monarch to receive a formal education. He spent eight years studying at St Joseph's College, a Jesuit school in Darjeeling, India. On 13 March 1955 his grandfather King Tribhuvan died and his father succeeded to the Nepalese throne. With his father's ascension Birendra became the Crown Prince of Nepal.
In 1959 Birendra enrolled at Eton College in the United Kingdom. After studying at Eton until 1964 he returned to Nepal where he began to explore the country by travelling incognito to remote parts of the country where he lived on whatever was available in the villages and monasteriesHe later completed his education by spending some time at the University of Tokyo before studying political theory at Harvard University from 1967 to 1968Late King Birendra enjoyed to travel in his youth and went on trips to Canada, Latin America, Africa and a number of Asian countries. He was also an art collector and supporter of Nepalese crafts people and artists. He also learnt to fly helicoptersBirendra was married to Aishwarya Rajya Laxmi Devi Rana from the Rana family on 27 February 1970The wedding which was billed as one of the most lavish Hindu nuptial ceremonies in history cost $9.5 million to stage.[5] Birendra and Aishwaraya had three children and one half daughter Princess Teesha.
Prince Dipendra (27 June 1971 – 4 June 2001)
Princess Shruti (15 October 1976 – 1 June 2001)
Prince Nirajan (6 November 1977–1 June 2001)
Reign
Birendra succeeded to the throne on 31 January 1972 on the death of his father. On his ascension he was effectively an absolute monarch as he inherited a country where political parties were banned and he ruled through a system of local and regional councils known as panchayatsBirendra resented the absolute monarch tag maintaining that he presided over a democracy in which representatives to the assembly were indirectly elected and saying that his poor and backward country could not afford a democracy based on party politics and that it needed firm and decisive governmentHis first trips abroad as king were to India in October 1973 and China two months later as he believed that Nepal, sandwiched between the two Asian powers, should have good relations with bothIn an attempt to maintain the panchayat system of government prominent leaders of the Nepali Congress Party were arrestedBecause of the growing pro democracy movement Birendra announced that a referendum to decide between a non-party and a multi-party system would be held. The referendum was held in May 1980 with the non-party system winning by a margin of 55% to 45%During the 1980s the restraints that had been imposed on political organisations were starting to ease and liberal student-led groups were starting to appear demanding constitutional change in NepalHe was made a British Field Marshal in 1980.
threatened even more when Birendra and most of his family (including Queen Aiswarya) were massacred at a royal dinner on 1 June 2001Published reports from eyewitnesses and the results of an investigation carried by a two-man committee made up of the Chief of the Supreme Court Keshav Prasad Upadhaya and the speaker of the House of Representatives Taranath Ranabhat,[10] confirmed his eldest son and heir, Dipendra, was the gunman. There is some speculation that Gyanendra was behind a conspiracySome political faction of Nepal has blamed foreign elements as being involved in the massacre of the Royal family of Nepal. Dipendra was proclaimed king but died a few days later of self-inflicted gunshot wounds during the massacre. Birendra's brother, Gyanendra, then became King.We love our king very much...

Elbert Einstien(huge brain)

Albert Einstein (march1879-18 april1955) was a German born theorictical physicist who discovered the theory of relativity effecting a revolution in physics.For this achievement Einstein often regarded as father of modern physics.He gave the theory of relativity that mass and energy can change from one another.In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

Elbert said that

Every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life are based on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving.

The temple of science are many mansions, and various indeed are they that dwell therein and the motives that have led them thither. Many take to science out of a joyful sense of superior intellectual power; science is their own special sport to which they look for vivid experience and the satisfaction of ambition; many others are to be found in the temple who have offered the products of their brains on this altar for purely utilitarian purposes. Were an angel of the Lord to come and drive all the people belonging to these two categories out of the temple, the assemblage would be seriously depleted, but there would still be some men, of both present and past times, left inside. Our planck is one of them, and that is why we love him.
I am quite aware that we have just now lightheartedly expelled in imagination many excellent men who are largely, perhaps chiefly, responsible for the buildings of the temple of science; and in many cases our angel would find it a pretty ticklish job to decide. But of one thing I feel sure: if the types we have just expelled were the only types there were, the temple would never have come to be, any more than a forest can grow which consists of nothing but creepers. For these people any sphere of human activity will do, if it comes to a point; whether they become engineers, officers, tradesmen, or scientists depends on circumstances.Man seeks to form for himself, in whatever manner is suitable for him, a simplified and lucid image of the world, and so to overcome the world of experience by striving to replace it to some extent by this image. This is what the painter does, and the poet, the speculative philosopher, the natural scientist, each in his own way. Into this image and its formation, he places the center of gravity of his emotional life, in order to attain the peace and serenity that he cannot find within the narrow confines of swirling personal experience.A man who is convinced of the truth of his religion is indeed never tolerant. At the least, he is to feel pity for the adherent of another religion but usually it does not stop there. The faithful adherent of a religion will try first of all to convince those that believe in another religion and usually he goes on to hatred if he is not successful. However, hatred then leads to persecution when the might of the majority is behind it.
In the case of a Christian clergyman, the tragic-comical is found in this: that the Christian religion demands love from the faithful, even love for the enemy. This demand, because it is indeed superhuman, he is unable to fulfill. Thus intolerance and hatred ring through the oily words of the clergyman. The love, which on the Christian side is the basis for the conciliatory attempt towards Judaism is the same as the love of a child for a cake. That means that it contains the hope that the object of the love will be eaten up...

After 1905, Einstein continued working in all three of his works in the 1905 in paper. He made important contributions to the quantum theory, but increasingly he sought to extend the special theory of relativity to phenomena involving acceleration. The key to an elaboration emerged in 1907 with the principle of equivalence, in which gravitational acceleration was held a priori indistinguishable from acceleration caused by mechanical forces; gravitational mass was therefore identical with inertial mass. Einstein elevated this identity, which is implicit in the work of Isaac Newton, to a guiding principle in his attempts to explain both electromagnetic and gravitational acceleration according to one set of physical laws. In 1907 he proposed that if mass were equivalent to energy, then the principle of equivalence required that gravitational mass would interact with the apparent mass of electromagnetic radiation, which includes light. By 1911, Einstein was able to make preliminary predictions about how a ray of light from a distant star, passing near the Sun, would appear to be attracted, or bent slightly, in the direction of the Sun's mass. At the same time, light radiated from the Sun would interact with the Sun's mass, resulting in a slight change toward the infrared end of the Sun's optical spectrum. At this juncture Einstein also knew that any new theory of gravitation would have to account for a small but persistent anomaly in the perihelion motion of the planet Mercury.

About 1912, Einstein began a new phase of his gravitational research, with the help of his mathematician friend Marcel Grossmann, by phrasing his work in terms of the tensor calculus of Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro. The tensor calculus greatly facilitated calculations in four-dimensional space-time, a notion that Einstein had obtained from Hermann Minkowski's 1907 mathematical elaboration of Einstein's own special theory of relativity. Einstein called his new work the general theory of relativity. After a number of false starts, he published the definitive form of the general theory in late 1915. In it the gravitational field equations were covariant; that is, similar to Maxwell's equations, the field equations took the same form in all equivalent frames of reference. To their advantage from the beginning, the covariant field equations gave the observed perihelion motion of the planet Mercury. In its original form, Einstein's general relativity has been verified numerous times in the past 60 years, especially during solar-eclipse expeditions when Einstein's light-deflection prediction could be tested.

Life after death(imaginary)

There is life after death it is possible or not.If it is possible then it is Miracle .Scientists do not believe on this thinks, they thought that there is only one life for human beings.After death there is no life.In my view there is life after death.In last stage of man there soul may passes from eyes , mouth , brain ...no body known.

In my view human beings have three main luck.The luck in my view divided into three parts .1 present 2.past. 3future.We should believe in present time because present time is our future time.If we do something in present day then we get something in future .Present time is directly proportional to future and present is inversely proportional to past.It is true that our life is already written by nature (GOD).So believe on present day and do your own work.For example student should do their own work and man and women can do there own work.Pycologically if we are happy another time we are sad and vise Virsa.And we should believe on time.Our life is so valuable it is only our last life.After death we should be humanbiengs or another ceature.

Cycling process is going on.It is the rule of nature after born we can die ,so do something for our country .Our Nepal is in tipicale country .Day by day our country is undeveloped because of our fault.So do not believe on money because money is just a paper .F paper we are fight together.So it is wrong .So do your own duty then money is come together.If we do something wrong for our mother land then we are finished by a nature then our soul may go to heaven.So my request is that not go other country and die for our country.

2012(Destruction of Earth)

It is presently assumed by most people and the general scientific world at large, It is true that in 2012 there is destruction of Earth scientists are believe on it. Scientist are believe that at beginning of the Earth . The Earth was a burning fire slowly it cools and life exist on the Earth , there is no map of the world .Patric said that

In 2012 the next polar reversal will take place on earth. This means that the North Pole will be changed into the South Pole. Scientifically this can only be explained by the fact that the earth will start rotating in the opposite direction, together with a huge disaster of unknown proportions.

In my books I reveal the immense cataclysm that is going to torment the earth in the nehat the rotation of the Earth is stable, however, as expounded in my previous works on this subject, this is not the case. The gruesome reports of the previous catastrophes should, hopefully, be clear to all.

The historical exploration of cosmology in previous books is founded on the translation of hieroglyphs, cracking of codes, unveiling of the magnetic reversal of the sun, study of old maps, decoding of astronomical clues, geological research, and the discovery of the most exciting archaeological find in modern times.
Considering these I came to the following conclusions:

1. With clock-like regularity, sudden reversals and pole shifts are natural to the Earth. The result is worldwide destruction, and is supported by Paolo-magnetic evidence and early manuscripts.
2. The reversal of the poles is attributed to the harmonic cycle of the magnetic fields of the sun.
3. Polar reversals can be calculated precisely on the basis of the sunspot cycle theory or the magnetic field theory, which the Maya and the Old Egyptians were privy to. These secrets are contained in the Labyrinth of Hayward, a huge complex consisting of three thousand rooms.

In my view the destruction of the earth begins later . According to scientist there is invisible magnet on the earth . In my view it rotates in anti clock duration in which clock rotate in clock wise direction. The magnet lies 17 degree on the equator reason .To come in 0 degree it takes time about 30 to 40 years.When it happens the destitution of the earth is sure.Then map of the earth is changed no one can exits on the Earth .The face of the earth can Chanda and at that time the earth is alike a burning fire . No, The Sun's magnetic north pole, which was in the northern hemisphere just a few months ago, now points south.

It's a topsy-turfy situation, but not an unexpected one.

"This always happens around the time of solar maximum," says David Hathaway, a solar physicist at the Marshall Space Flight Center. "The magnetic poles exchange places at the peak of the sunspot cycle. In fact, it's a good indication that Solar Max is really here."

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they will reverse again.

This transition happens, as far as we know, at the peak of every 11-year sunspot cycle - like clockwork.

Earth’s magnetic field also flips, but with less regularity. Consecutive reversals are spaced 5 thousand years to 50 million years apart.

The last reversal happened 740,000 years ago. Some researchers think our planet is overdue for another one, but nobody knows exactly when the next reversal might occur.

The Sun's basic magnetic field, like Earth's, resembles that of a bar magnet.